Table 2.
Taxonomy of cyber-physical attacks in STDC loops
| Attack | Characteristics | Implementation Methods | Potential Impacts | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| DIA | Malicious alteration ofsensor/control data | Injection of forged telemetry data via compromised PMUs/RTUs | Erroneous state estimation, incorrect dispatch decisions, equipment overload | [24, 25] |
| Replay Attack | Re-transmission of outdated or fraudulent data | Delayed/rescheduled injection of historic sensorsignals | Temporal confusionin control systems, synchronization failures | [25] |
| Aurora Attack | Physical destruction of grid components via unauthorized circuit breaker control | Exploitation of unsecured SCADA protocols to manipulate circuit breaker status | Permanent equipment damage, grid instability | [26] |
| FDIA | Corrupted state estimation via manipulated sensor inputs | Injection of biased voltage/load measurements into EMS | Incorrect load balancing, line overloads, cascading failures | [27, 28] |
| LRA | Strategic manipulation of load distribution | Targeted falsification of demand response signals | Overloading of critical lines, blackouts | [29] |
| DoS | Disruption of communication channels | Flooding networks with traffic, jamming RF signals | Loss of real-time situational awareness, delayed control commands | [30, 31] |
| Covert Attack | Stealthy manipulation of consensus protocols | Sybil attacks on distributed control systems | Degraded system resilience, undetected data corruption | [31] |
| Protocol Exploits | Targeted attacks on communication standards | Injection of malformed packets into IEC 61850/Modbus protocols | Protocol-level failures, device misoperation | [32, 33] |
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