Research Article

An overview of cyber attacks on critical cyber-physical systems and government infrastructures

¹ Department of Computer-Aided Design of Computing Systems, Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, Kharkiv, 61166, Ukraine
² Department of Software Engineering, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Karlskrona, 37179, Sweden
³ NioGuard Security Lab, Kharkiv, 61166, Ukraine

^* Corresponding authors (email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. )

Received: 30 September 2025
Revised: 5 December 2025
Accepted: 14 January 2026

Abstract

This study aimed to analyze the nature, scale, and consequences of cyberattacks on critical cyber-physical systems in Ukraine over the past decade, using a methodology based on classifying attacks by type, threat actor (including Russian hacking groups Sandworm, Fancy Bear, and Ember Bear responsible for half of the 22 analyzed incidents), target sector, and temporal patterns. It also included comparative analysis of cyber defense strategies. The Chinese group Volt Typhoon also demonstrated high risk through living-off-the-land techniques. While phishing remained the primary attack vector (7 cases), sophisticated supply chain attacks like NotPetya caused significant damage, with the energy sector being most targeted (7 incidents) due to its strategic importance. Six attacks involved manipulation of Industrial Control Systems/Operational Technology protocols, while four employed destructive wiper malwares. The Spoofing, Tampering, Repudiation, Information Disclosure, Denial of Service, Elevation of Privilege (STRIDE) analysis of digital platforms concluded that modern challenges require innovative solutions like Cybersecurity Mesh Architecture, digital immunity systems, and artificial intelligence, along with international coordination, while addressing barriers such as legacy systems, workforce shortages, and regulatory fragmentation, ultimately providing an evidence base for improving cybersecurity strategies at national and international levels.